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The 21st century has brought numerous opportunities and challenges to aligning education with the labor market for graduates, prompting them to adapt to the evolving demands of the workplace and society (Care, Kim, Vista, & Anderson, 2019). Students now have the chance to work in various countries and international working environments (Flanagan, 2007; Reinert, 2004), which underscores the necessity for them to acquire not only academic and technical skills but also intercultural competencies to thrive in such settings (Fadel, Bialik, and Trilling, 2015). Despite advancements in education, a significant disparity remains between the skills taught in academic institutions and those required in the professional world (Abelha, Fernandes, Mesquita, Seabra, & Ferreira-Oliveira, 2020). Tổng quan tài liệu công trình nghiên cứu liên quan The concept of employability Regarding the worldwide distribution of the studies, Europe and Asia are the leading continents in producing research on graduate employability and competence development, with Spain identified as the most prolific country, followed by the UK, Australia, and Portugal. Notably, there is a scarcity of studies from the Americas- none from South America and only one from North America- and from Africa. The analysis also highlights regional concerns: Asian research often focuses on the development of language skills, particularly English as a foreign language, while African studies emphasize the role of higher education institutions in enhancing graduate employability (Abelha et al., 2020) Employability is commonly defined as the capacity to obtain and sustain employment, encompassing a mix of skills, qualifications, and personal attributes that contribute to professional success (Hillage & Pollard, 1998). Over time, the concept has evolved to reflect shifts in labor markets, educational requirements, and industry expectations, with increasing emphasis on adaptability, flexibility, and the ability to navigate changing job landscapes (Woods et al., 2024; Abuselidze & Zoidze, 2023). Research highlights that employability involves both internal factors, such as technical and soft skills, personal qualities, and knowledge, as well as external factors like labor market demands and socioeconomic conditions. Key skills associated with employability include communication, teamwork, problem-solving, adaptability, and continuous learning, as well as technical expertise relevant to specific fields (Moumen & Mejjad, 2021). The effectiveness of educational institutions in preparing students for employment remains a central debate, with concerns about the alignment between academic training and employer needs. Modern frameworks suggest that employability is not just about securing a job but also about maintaining and transitioning between roles in a dynamic economy, requiring ongoing skill development and the ability to adapt to new challenges (McQuaid & Lindsay, 2005). Thus, employability is increasingly viewed as a prerequisite for meaningful, sustained career success rather than merely job attainment Additionally, in literature worldwide, employability is analyzed from many stakeholders’ perceptions of many stakeholders, such as employers, graduates, and both.
Frameworks of factors shaping graduate employability Graduate employability is shaped by a wide range of factors which including both personal and contextual factors (Ergün & Şeşen, 2021); social mobility, technical skills, and soft skills (Hossaine, Alam, Alamgir, & Salat, 20200); or human capital, social capital, individual attributes, and individual behaviors (Clarke; 2017). From the viewpoints of employers and graduates, these studies offer diverse perspectives on employability. Despite the fact that variations in definitions and categorization criteria across studies often lead to overlaps among the factors within broader domains, transferable skills consistently emerge as a key component across multiple frameworks and studies. The next section will analyze selected frameworks and literature to highlight the important role of transferable skills in shaping graduate employability. Figure 1 Factors af ecting the employability hypothesis by Ergün and Şeşen (2021)
From the graduates’ viewpoint, Ergün and Şeşen (2021) analyzed university students’ perceived employability, focusing on personal factors like cultural intelligence, adaptability, communication skills, and contextual factors such as organizational support and inclusivity. Their study included 500 students from business, law, and engineering programs in the context of Istanbul, Turkey. Key findings showed that personal attributes like generic skills, also known as transferable skills in the current study, and academic performance had a close connection to higher perceived employability, while work experience did not.
Contextual factors had mixed results, with labor market perception positively impacting employability, but university contributions and academic consultants’ performance did not. However, the study has limitations: it focused on specific disciplines, relied on self-reported data, was country-specific, and used a cross-sectional design. Additionally, the random selection of participants raises concerns about the research’s depth and validity. Unlike Ergün and Şeşen’s study, the current research aims to address these limitations and provide a more comprehensive exploration of the topic. Although Ergün and Şeşen’s (2021) study categorized the factors influencing employability into personal and contextual domains, transferable skills, referred to in their study as generic skills, were still identified as a crucial component within the Personal Circumstances domain (H4). The study highlighted that these skills played a crucial role in shaping students’ perceived employability, reinforcing the argument that transferable skills is one of the essential factors across employability-related frameworks. Figure 2 Hossaine’s model of graduate employability (2017)
In the study by Hossaine et al. (2020), transferable skills are classified in the soft skills category, forming one of the three main groups of factors influencing employability. To be more specific, from the employers’ perspective, Hossaine et al. (2020) studied factors affecting business graduates’ employability through empirical evidence using partial least squares (PLS). Findings suggest that business graduates need a strong knowledge of core subject-related technical matters along with communication, leadership, and team-building skills to be employed successfully in a job. In other words, soft skills, technical skills, and sociocultural factors like nepotism, political connections, and social status are important for business graduates’ employability. The study attempts to fill the knowledge gap between employability and the required business graduate skills by examining the role of social mobility skills along with technical skills and soft skills. The sample size, however, poses a limitation to the survey as they were collected from only two universities in a developing country (Bangladesh), which may limit the generalization of the findings to other countries. Secondly, measurement error is a pivotal problem for employability studies, and this study inherits the limitations from the items used by Cuyper et al. (2008) to measure graduate employability. Moreover, the study did not consider the prior life experiences of respondents that could assist them in developing their skills. Finally, the current study did not consider employers’ and academics’ perceptions of graduate employability. Figure 3 Clark’s model of graduate employability (2017)
Also, by addressing graduates’ perspectives through secondary research, which reviewed related research on the topic, Clarke (2017) brought together concepts from both graduate employability and broader employability literature into an integrated model on graduates’ perceived employability. Although the article is based mainly on UK and Australian data, it reflects many relevant issues for other countries, including the trend to mass education, the commercialization of higher education, the rise of the student consumer, and increasing government and employer involvement in education policy directions. The model contributes to the understanding of the individual, institutional, and contextual factors that influence employability and career outcomes among graduates, thus providing a framework for universities as they grapple with the demands of multiple stakeholders. Drawing on the broader employability literature, this article develops a framework that incorporates six key dimensions – human capital, social capital, individual attributes, individual behaviors, perceived employability, and labor market factors – to help explore and explain the concept of graduate employability. However, measures used in the UK and Australia may no longer be appropriate in current labor market contexts; thus, longitudinal surveys may be needed.
It can be seen that, similar to the study by Ergün and Şeşen (2021), Clarke (2017) also identified various factors influencing employability, with transferable skills clearly acknowledged as one of them. However, rather than grouping them under a single category, Clarke’s model breaks down transferable skills into distinct dimensions such as human capital, individual behaviors, and individual attributes. This classification reflects the complex and multidimensional nature of these skills. Nevertheless, the research still underscores the significant role that transferable skills play in shaping graduate employability. In summary, although Ergün and Şeşen (2021), Clarke (2017), and Hossaine et al. (2020) might have different approaches toward factors shaping graduate employability, transferable skills are identified by the authors as a critical element in determining the employability of university graduates. Frameworks of transferable skills required for graduate employability Transferable skills are defined as a set of abilities and attributes that can be applied across various roles, industries, and life experiences, making them critical for career adaptability and mobility (Bridges, 1993). The terms “transferable” (UNESCO, 2012), also known as “transversal” (Care & Luo, 2016) competencies, both refer to versatile skills that are applicable across different contexts, unlike technical vocational skills that are tied to specific jobs. In some regions, these are also called “soft skills,” a term generally used to describe a mix of interpersonal and intrapersonal abilities, often encompassing emotional traits, attitudes, and values (P21, 2019). The transferable skills identified as crucial for employability have been highlighted by various authors. These essential subskills are evaluated across different groups, including both graduates and employers. To develop the framework used in this study, the researchers conducted a review based on a systematic review by Karaca-Atik, Meeuwisse, Gorgievski, & Smeets (2023) on the critical 21CS for social sciences graduates. Additionally, the study analyzed the Framework for 21st Century Learning by the P21, which was ultimately chosen as the framework for this research. A systematic review of important 21st-century skills for sustainable career development (Karaca-Atik et al., 2023). Figure 4. Skills mentioned in the included articles are important for social sciences graduates’ career sustainability. (Karaca-Atik et al., 2023)
In this systematic research, Karaca-Atik et al. (2023) included twelve articles to detect graduates’ and employers’ perspectives on which skills are pivotal for social sciences graduates’ job sustainability. Result indicates that communication, problem solving, critical thinking, categorized in Learning and Innovation Skills in the P21 framework, flexibility, initiative, and self-direction, and social and cross-cultural skills from Life and Career Skills in the P21 framework are highly valued by both employers and social sciences graduates. Among those, communication was the most frequently mentioned skill, appearing in 8 out of 12 articles, indicating its great importance. However, the type of communication skills needed varies among sectors and organizations where graduates work. The second most reported skill among the twelve selected articles was problem solving, making these two skills highly valued in the labour market globally. While this systematic research highlights which skill sets are more important than others in the P21 framework, the outcomes are restricted to the social sciences graduates’ and employers’ perspective only, undermining its representativeness. Framework for 21st-Century Learning (P21, 2019) Figure 5. P21’s Framework for 21st Century Learning (2019)
The P21 framework emphasizes key student outcomes – skills, knowledge, and competencies that are essential to succeed in 21st-century careers and life (Kay & Greenhill, 2011). It categorizes these skills into three main areas: (1) Life and Career Skills, involving adaptability, flexibility, initiative & self-direction, cross-cultural and social skills, productivity, accountability, leadership and responsibility; (2) Learning and Innovation Skills including creativity, innovation, critical thinking, problem-solving, communication, and collaboration; and (3) Information, Media, and Technology Skills, which entail competencies in information literacy, media literacy, and ICT (Information, Communications, and Technology) literacy (P21, 2019a). Developed collaboratively by scholars, educators, and experts, the P21 framework provides a comprehensive structure for designing educational environments that prepare students for the demands of the 21st-century workforce, making it particularly applicable in higher education contexts (Kay, 2010; P21, 2019b). Table 1 P21’s list of 21st-century essential skills (2019)
Summary of Analytical Framework Skills Sub-skills Life and Career Skills Adaptability Flexibility Initiative & self-direction
Cross-cultural and social skills Productivity and accountability Leadership and responsibility
Learning and Innovation Skills Creativity Innovation Critical thinking Problem-solving Communication Collaboration
Information, Media, and Technology Skills Information literacy Media literacy ICT Literacy
Based on the systematic review of important 21CS for sustainable career development by Karaca-Atik et al. (2023), which examined 12 different frameworks alongside the P21’s Framework for 21st Century Learning, certain overlaps can be observed in the key skills identified as essential for learners in the 21st century. Moreover, the credibility of the P21 Framework is reinforced by its frequent use as a foundational structure for categorizing essential skills. In the systematic review, Karaca-Atik et al. (2023) identified the most frequently noticed skills across the 12 frameworks. They were communication, problem solving, critical thinking, flexibility, adaptability, initiative and self-direction, and social and cross-cultural skills. The P21 framework also includes these and expands on them with additional, yet closely related, competencies. By synthesizing insights from both the 12 frameworks reviewed by Karaca-Atik et al. (2023) and the P21 framework, this study proposes an analytical framework of graduates’ 21st-century employability skills, which serves as the foundation for the current research. (see table 2) Table 2 Analytical framework of graduates’ 21st Century employability skills.
Summary of Analytical Framework Skills Sub-skills Learning and Innovation Skills Critical thinking Problem-solving
The impact of university education on graduates’ transferable skills for employability in the international workplace. The area of study concentrates on the influence of university education on graduates’ transferable skills for employability in the international workplace by exploring how tertiary education provides students with essential competencies sought by employers among various sectors. As the global job market evolves, the demand for graduates who can demonstrate effective communication, critical thinking, adaptability, teamwork, etc, is increasing, making the development of these transferable skills paramount for successful career trajectories (Kruja, Hysaj, & Oztas, 2024; MVNU Online Education, 2022). This emphasis on skill acquisition has prompted universities to integrate academic learning with experiential opportunities, such as internships, extracurricular activities, and international experiences, to enhance students’ readiness for diverse workplace environments (Institute of International Education, 2025; Jones, 2013; Universities UK, 2023; BetterEvaluation, n.d.). Notably, the effectiveness of university education in fostering these skills is a topic of ongoing debate. While many institutions promote the idea that their programs adequately prepare students for the workforce, a significant number of graduates express skepticism about the real-world applicability of their education, citing a disconnect between academic training and practical experience (Rhinehart, 2024; Bailey & Belfield, 2019). Concerns about whether universities emphasize the right skills within their curricula also persist, leading to calls for reform to better align educational outcomes with employer expectations (Quacquarelli Symonds, 2018). Additionally, studies indicate that international experiences, such as studying abroad, further enhance graduates’ employability by exposing them to diverse cultures and fostering adaptability, traits that are increasingly valued in today’s interconnected job
Creativity Innovation
Life and Career Skills Flexibility Adaptability Initiative and Self-Direction Social and cross-cultural skills Communication Collaboration and cooperation Leadership skill
Information, Media, and Technology Skills ICT (Information, Communications, and Technology) Literacy
market. (Fischer, Preston, Staus, & Storksdieck, 2022; Lacuesta & Palacios-Navarro, 2024; Carruthers, 2021). Employers seek candidates who not only possess technical knowledge but also demonstrate a robust set of transferable skills, highlighting the critical role that university education plays in shaping graduates’ career prospects (Patenall, 2023; Du Plessis, Angula, Du Plessis, & Tokwe, 2024). In light of these factors, the evolving landscape of higher education reflects a growing recognition of the necessity to equip students with the skills required to thrive in a competitive global workforce. University education and development of transferable skills University education plays a crucial role in equipping students with transferable skills that are essential for employability in various industries. These skills are not only relevant across multiple sectors but are also highly sought after by employers. Some of the key transferable skills developed through university experiences include attention to detail, communication, critical thinking, adaptability, problem-solving, and collaboration (Kruja, Hysaj, & Oztas, 2024; MVNU Online Education, 2022). The global job market increasingly demands graduates who can effectively collaborate and communicate across cultures. The emphasis on teamwork in university settings cultivates an understanding of diverse perspectives, enabling students to work effectively in international environments. Employers often seek candidates who demonstrate flexibility, accountability, and creativity in team-based projects, highlighting the importance of collaboration as a transferable skill (Patenall, 2023; Mello & Wattret, 2021). Understanding the job market demands, universities also implement frameworks and assessment tools aimed at enhancing the development of these skills throughout the educational journey. For instance, the Course Assessment for Skill Transfer (CAST) framework aids instructors in defining competency levels and measuring student development, ensuring that graduates are well-prepared for the workforce (Northwestern University, n.d.). By actively engaging in various learning opportunities and demonstrating leadership in everyday activities, students can showcase their abilities and become more attractive candidates in today’s competitive job market (MVNU Online Education, 2022; Mello & Wattret, 2021). In addition, transferable skills can also be actively fostered by students themselves with institutional support through academic and extracurricular activities or research engagement. Preparation of Key Transferable Skills in University Education University education plays a pivotal role in equipping students with essential transferable skills that are highly valued in the international workplace. These skills not only enhance employability but also prepare graduates for diverse challenges in their professional lives. Communication Skills Effective communication is a fundamental skill that graduates develop during their university years. This includes both verbal and written communication, as well as active listening abilities (UK Study Options, 2024). Employers seek candidates who can convey ideas clearly and collaborate with others, as strong communication fosters teamwork and reduces misunderstandings. By participating in group projects, presentations, and extracurricular activities, students refine their communication skills, which are critical in any workplace setting (City University of Hong Kong [CityU], 2024). Problem-solving and Critical Thinking Problem-solving and critical thinking are essential skills that university students cultivate through coursework and real-world experiences such as internships. (Patenall, 2023; UK Study Options, 2024). Graduates learn to analyze situations, evaluate options, and devise innovative solutions, making them valuable assets in dynamic industries. Employers who face unexpected challenges in their operations highly seek thee ability to approach challenges with a logical and creative mindset is highly sought after by employers who face unexpected challenges in their operations. Collaboration & Cooperation Collaboration & Cooperation is another crucial transferable skill developed through group projects and participation in student organizations. (Rasmussen University, n.d; Patenall, 2023). Working effectively in teams is essential for achieving common goals, and employers value candidates who can respect diverse perspectives and contribute positively to team dynamics. Engaging in team-based activities allows students to practice conflict resolution and incorporate others’ ideas, further enhancing their collaborative skills (City University of Hong Kong [CityU], 2024). Leadership Leadership is not limited to formal managerial positions; it encompasses the ability to inspire, guide, and motivate others. Graduates often have opportunities to take on leadership roles in group settings or student organizations, helping them develop decision-making and delegation skills. Individuals with the ability to lead initiatives and mentor their colleagues are preferred by employers, highlighting the importance of leadership as a transferable skill in any organization. Adaptability & Flexibility With the effect of globalization and an ever-changing global job market, City University of Hong Kong (2024) reported that adaptability and flexibility have become vital skills for graduates. University experiences, such as studying abroad or engaging in diverse group projects, help students become more flexible and open to change. These skills enable graduates to navigate new challenges and environments effectively, handling challenging situations, and are of paramount importance in international workplaces where cultural diversity is prevalent (Tomlinson, 2023). Interpersonal Skills Interpersonal skills, including empathy, sensitivity, and effective negotiation, are essential for building and maintaining professional relationships (Patenall, 2023; UK Study Options, 2024). Employers prioritize candidates who can integrate successfully into diverse work environments and collaborate with a variety of stakeholders. Graduates who cultivate strong interpersonal skills are better equipped to network and foster positive relationships within their organizations, enhancing their overall employability (City University of Hong Kong [CityU], 2024). By fostering these key transferable skills, university education significantly contributes to the preparedness of graduates for success in the international job market. University education in Vietnam The historical development of higher education in Vietnam has been heavily influenced by the country’s political and economic changes. Since gaining independence in 1945, Vietnam has adopted an educational structure based on the Soviet model, characterized by small, mono-disciplinary institutions primarily focused on meeting specific labor market needs (Tran, 2017; Tran & Swierczek, 2008). This system was aimed at preparing a skilled workforce essential for the nation’s development, a mission that remains central to higher education today (Tran, 2017). Higher education institutions in Vietnam were originally organized under various Line Ministries, with universities often aligned with specific sectors, such as health and agriculture. For instance, the University of Health was associated with the Ministry of Health, while the University of Agriculture fell under the Ministry of Agriculture and Development (Tran, 2008). This close relationship with government ministries has continued, with 13 major universities still operating under the direct supervision of these ministries, including the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) (Tran, 2008). The focus on vocational training within higher education has led to a prevailing notion that universities are primarily institutions for training rather than education. As noted by Tran Ngoc Ca (2006), the main mission of Vietnamese universities is to produce a competent labor force for industry. This vocational emphasis is reflected in the Education Law of 2005, which reinforces the need for in-depth professional knowledge at the university level (Tran, 2008). However, despite significant economic changes post-Doi Moi, the criteria for securing employment, particularly in the state sector, have remained deeply rooted in established practices, where influence and connections often play a critical role in job acquisition (Tran, 2008). While the economy has diversified, creating new job opportunities in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), the traditional approach of relying on relationships and “black money” continues to influence employment strategies, highlighting the persistence of collectivist cultural practices in Vietnam’s labor market (Tran, 2008; World Bank, 2008). As higher education in Vietnam evolves, it faces the challenge of addressing not only the skills demanded by an expanding job market but also the cultural contexts that shape graduate employability. Understanding these unique contextual and cultural factors is essential for enhancing the relevance and effectiveness of higher education in preparing graduates for a competitive international workforce (Mai, 2020; World Bank, 2008). To address the challenges faced by graduates, the Vietnamese government and the MOET have responded to pre-existing issues in Vietnam’s higher education system by introducing a number of policies aimed at improving the quality of education and ensuring that students acquire both the knowledge and skills needed for the labor market. One of the most notable efforts is the introduction of the Vietnamese Qualifications Framework (VQF) in 2016. The VQF provides specific descriptions and learning outcome requirements for all levels of education, including undergraduate programs, with the aim of aligning academic qualifications with labor market demands and international standards.
Vietnamese Qualifications Framework (VQF) The Vietnamese Qualifications Framework (VQF) is a national framework designed to classify and standardize the capacity, academic load, and qualifications across different levels of vocational and undergraduate education in Vietnam. Its objectives include improving the quality of human resources, aligning educational outcomes with employer needs, and ensuring compatibility with international frameworks like the ASEAN Qualifications Reference Framework (AQRF) to support mutual recognition and mobility within ASEAN. Figure 6. Six objectives of the AQRF (ASEAN, 2018)
The VQF comprises eight levels, from Level 1 (Primary I) to Level 8 (Doctoral degree), each defined by specific learning outcomes, academic credit requirements, and qualification types. The VQF aims to enhance human resource quality, align educational outcomes with employer needs, and support international recognition of qualifications. It also promotes lifelong learning by enabling transitions between educational levels and fostering a culture of continuous education. Table 3. Description of the Vietnamese Qualifications Framework for Bachelor’s level (Enclosed with Decision No. 1982/QD-TTg dated October 18, 2016, by the Prime Minister) Level Learning outcomes
Requirements for learners completing the course
At Level 6 of the VQF, which corresponds to the Bachelor’s degree, graduates must demonstrate comprehensive theoretical and practical knowledge in their chosen field, along with a broad understanding of social sciences, politics, law, and information technology relevant to their profession. They are also expected to possess skills in planning, organizing, supervising, and basic management within their area of work. In terms of skills, learners must be able to solve complex problems in unpredictable situations, lead teams or projects, evaluate performance, and communicate effectively to transfer knowledge and solutions in the workplace. Foreign language proficiency at Level 3/6 is also required. Autonomy and responsibility are emphasized: graduates should work independently or collaboratively, take personal responsibility for outcomes, guide and supervise others, make informed decisions, and continuously seek improvements.
(Undergraduate Degree – 120 – 180 credits)
Knowledge and understanding
Skills Autonomy and responsibility
6 – A comprehensive understanding of social sciences, political science, legislation, and information technology relevant to their profession.
- Knowledge about planning, organizing, and supervising processes in specific fields of work.
- Basic knowledge of management and control of professional activities.
- Problem-solving skills for complex issues in unpredictable contexts.
- Leadership skills to create jobs for themselves or others.
- Argumentation, critical thinking, and the ability to evaluate tasks and team performance.
- Communication skills for transferring knowledge and solutions effectively in the workplace.
- Foreign-language proficiency at Level 3/6 based on Vietnam’s foreign language framework.
- Work independently or collaboratively in changing contexts while taking personal responsibility for their work outcomes.
- Guide and supervise others in performing ordinary tasks.
- Make self-oriented decisions, produce professional conclusions, and defend their viewpoints effectively.
- Plan, direct, manage resources, evaluate tasks, and find solutions to improve performance.
To be awarded a Bachelor’s degree, students must complete a minimum of 120 academic credits and meet all outcome standards specified for Level 6. Overall, the Bachelor’s level within the VQF is essential for preparing students for professional careers by equipping them with advanced knowledge, practiccal knowledge, and relevant transferable skills. It aims to bridge the gap between academic learning and real-world demands, fostering well-rounded professionals who can contribute effectively to both domestic and international workplaces.